Bloom's Taxonomy divides cognitive learning into six levels, including lower-level thinking skills (knowledge, comprehension, application) and higher-order thinking that involves skills such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation of information. Teaching strategies that promote higher-order learning processes were incorporated into large (150 student) sections of entry-level geology courses. We created over fifty short exercises that can be used as formative assessments of higher-order thinking in an active-learning environment. The exercises took a variety of forms but three types (Venn diagrams, concept maps, and evaluation rubrics) were used more frequently and can be readily adapted by any instructor with relatively little effort.

Analysis requires that students break information into component parts to identify its organization. Venn diagrams composed of two or three overlapping circles represent an opportunity for students to analyze the key components of sets of geological features. For example, students used Venn diagrams to compare and contrast tornadoes and hurricanes or different types of volcanoes.

Synthesis requires that students combine parts into a greater whole. We used concept maps to develop synthesis skills. Concept maps present a "big picture" view of a student's understanding of a topic. The typical illustration of a rock cycle in most textbooks is an example of a concept map.

Evaluation questions seek to have students make judgments about facts, data, opinions or research results using evidence and scientific reasoning. Good answers require that students analyze and synthesize information and clarify ideas. We ask students to create their own evaluation rubrics for the purpose of assessing specific geological situations. For example, students developed rubrics to evaluate the potential risks from future earthquakes or hurricanes.

We compared student performance on exams between courses using these formative assessment techniques and those taught in a more traditional form by the same instructor. Student scores on multiple choice exam questions were slightly higher (1-3%) for students taught in the active learning environment and short answer questions showed larger gains (7%). Student retention also showed improvement (8-14%) in the active learning classes.