GEOLOGISTS WITH BORDERS: AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL INTERACTION WITH JAPAN AND EUROPE AFTER THE 1906 EARTHQUAKE

The earthquake of April 18, 1906, in San Francisco is remembered as one of America’s worst natural disasters. Its investigation also gave birth to the science of seismology in the United States, culminating months later in the founding of the Seismological Society of America. The investigation involved scientists from around the world, drawing Japanese scientists to California and sparking discussion in Europe. International scientific communication, more than the singular contribution of any scientist or nation, constructed new theories and concepts to explain earthquakes as a result of this investigation, including recognizable terms like “strike-slip” and “dip slip.” However, by comparing the condition of seismology in the United States, Japan, and Europe before and after the earthquake, I show that even though scientists communicated across national boundaries, this communication did not always translate into the creation of international scientific standards. I describe this specifically in the case of the Geological Society of America’s revised fault nomenclature in 1913 and the theory of elastic rebound. While the theory of elastic rebound was relatively well accepted by Japanese seismologists because it made earthquake prediction plausible, the new fault nomenclature faced resistance in Europe and the United States because existing terminology remained convincing. The ability of these theories to become scientific standards depended upon how convincing they were against each nation’s geological conventions. National differences continued to define seismology despite technological advancement and improved communication. Given that some xenophobic California residents also attacked Japanese scientists as they investigated the earthquake, national difference was also reflected in growing nationalist attitudes in the United States.